The Aberfan Disaster

On the 21st October 1966, in a small industrial town called Aberfan in South Wales - a catastrophic disaster hit.

For 50 years leading up to the event mining debris from the Merthyr Vale Coillery built up, millions of cubic metres of excavated debris was tipped into a pile directly above Aberfan. The loose debris was tipped onto very porous sandstone which contained numerous underground springs, causing immense downward pressure.

And, after several days of heavy rain - disaster struck. On Friday 21st Oct 1966 at 9.00am a subsidence of about 3–6 metres occurred on the upper flank of waste tip No. 7, and by 9.15am more than 150,000 cubic metres of water-saturated debris broke away and flowed downhill at high speed. As the mass picked up speed the front soon became liquefied and caused viscous surges downhill. 120,000 cubic metres of debris was deposited on the lower slopes of the mountain but a 12m high slurry formed in the village with a mass of over 40,000 cubic metres.

20 houses were destroyed as well as an entire farm but the worst damage of all was the loss of life caused. Pantglas Primary School suffered an inconceivable loss of life - killing 116 children. Those children had just left their assembly on the south side of the school to return to their classrooms on the north side of the school, and yes, it was the north side that was hit. Rubble 33ft deep filled classrooms and the playground. There were also 28 adult fatalities. The disaster struck out a whole generation of children and so the disaster is still poignant in the memory of those still alive in the village today.

By the next day, 2,000 emergency services workers and volunteers were working on the scene (some for more than 24 hours continuously). Rescue work had to be temporarily halted during the day when water began pouring down the slope again, and because of the vast quantity and consistency of the spoil, it was nearly a week before all the bodies were recovered. Chapels acted as mortuary's and 2 doctors were given the role of carrying out the post postmortems - most fatalities were found to be caused by asphyxiation although some were caused by multiple crash injuries or crushed skulls.

There was an investigation carried out later on the 26th October 1966 and the inquiry was published later on the 3rd of August 1967 which found the National Coal Board (NCB) to be at total fault for the tragedy, most notably, Lord Robbens - chair of the NCB at the time.

The only positive to come out of such a disaster was the change in legislation - the law now required the industry to be much stricter on regulations on tipping and general mining activities. There is little doubt that had this disaster not occurred at that time and at that place, it would have happened elsewhere just at a later date. Yet, this tragic land slide was caused by human error and is still very agonising in the memories of many.

Cheap Labour

A recent Panorama programme that aired on the BBC on Monday 23rd September 2013 brought to light (again) the ever-present issues of cheap labour in low-income countries (LIC's). The programme focused on Dhaka, Bangladesh where the recent tragedy occurred at the Tazreen Fashion Factory killing at least 117 people but seriously injuring more than 200.  But why and how did this occur?

Firstly we should address the issue of cheap labour, not solely in the Tazreen Fashion Factory, but globally across LIC's. In Dhaka, workers are paid the equivalent of £1-2 a day, not acceptable in the present day by most peoples standards. Further to this; the conditions the workers work in are often poor and below safety standards, and the fact that the workers are forced to work over time - with some workers starting at 7.30am and finishing at 2.30am, an 18-hour shift. They then have to start work again at 7.30am, giving them very little time for sleeping, eating or spending time with their families. Possibly the worst factor, and the main factor contributing to the Tazreen Factory Fire and many more factory fires is the fact that the number of fire escapes are limited in the factories and the doors to the factories are regularly locked to stop the labourers from stealing the goods, this not only results in an over-heating, stuffy room for the workers, but leaves all those inside vulnerable to fire risk. It is not uncommon for fires to break out within these factories, so the locking of the gates just further increases the chances of the workers being burnt alive.

But do the large Western Transnational Corporations (TNC's) know about this labour? Well, they all, for obvious reasons, claim they have no knowledge of such conditions and labour. And many don't believe them, but they may well be telling the truth. It is commonly believed that these factories keep two log books for the hours which workers work, one of the books shows normal working hours (7.30am-4.30pm) and this is the book shown to the large TNC's. However, they also keep their own log, showing how much time the workers are actually working.

But should the TNC's be held responsible if they are mislead? This question divides opinion amongst many, but, I believe that the TNC's should be encouraged to 'do more digging' around their suppliers legitimacy, one firm that is well-known in the UK for it's excellent fair trade status is British high-street staple Marks & Spencer. Their suppliers go through rigorous checks before M&S choose to do business with them, thus resulting in very high working standards for the workers.

One further point should be made - these TNC's provide the workers with a wage, many of these workers may otherwise not receive any income at all, so some is better than none. It should also be noted that many TNC's work legitimately, and in a fair manner resulting in high quality factories.

In conclusion, I believe that a global collaboration amongst buyers, suppliers, governments, charities and the media is required to form an effective attack on this type of labour. It will require enforcement and funding but a collaboration from across the globe should help to tackle the issue significantly. The only question is...How long will this global collaboration take to form?

Sources; Panorama - dying for a bargain. Reporter; Richard Bilton. Aired; Mon 23 Sept. 8.30pm

The Standardisation of Boxes

In the ever-changing modernised world, everyone is looking to gain an advantage over fellow competitors when it comes to business. In this blog, I will examine how the standardisation of large shipping containers has given those businesses an advantage over rivals, and why rival company's will now follow suit.

The recent acceleration of Globalization has allowed for many people to purchase foreign goods, for instance, the Chinese have become very fond of Scotch Whiskey, obviously, only made in Scotland. So in order for the Chinese to purchase this product, it needs to be transported all the way to Asia, from Europe. But how has the standardisation of shipping containers allowed this to occur so efficiently and quickly? Well, the simple answer is; the containers are standardised. If all the containers are standardised it means the ship, or the train, or the crane that lifts the boxes, can all be standardised, therefore there is little need to have different ships for different containers as all ships and all containers are standardised for the specific requirements, thus reducing costs of companies, and therefore either increasing profits for those companies that have reduced their costs, or reducing the price for consumers, if the business passes on the reduction in cost to the consumer.

But what does this mean to the consumer? Well, as aforementioned, the company may well reduce the price of the good to the consumer and therefore creating savings for the consumer. It also means that the goods are more efficiently transported as no time is wasted on ensuring the correct crane is in the docks at the right time for the correct containers etc. So consumers gain the benefit of having Scotch Whiskey in China all the time, with little chance of supply issues.

So why will rival companies follow suit? In my opinion, this is fairly obvious, it will make them more attractive to those who want their goods exported as it will be more efficient and will also be more economically viable as costs should be reduced through the standardisation.

So, the standardisation of container shipping boxes has resulted in many benefits for the consumer and businesses around the globe and has helped to accelerate Gloablization as those large companies look to exploit all areas of the globe to turn over more and more revenue each year.

Digital Divides

The Digital Divide (originally used to describe inequalities of access to the Internet between households in the USA or UK) usually refers to the uneven development of Internet access within a country. A more appropriate term to match those theories that go with globalisation, such as most in the modern day, is the term 'Global Digital Divide' (GDD) which, as you may have guessed, refers to unequal Internet access between countries.

Currently only one third of the worlds 7 billion people are online. Leading experts believe that, in 2011, only 35% of the worlds entire population were online. However, a rather shocking statistic from a recent report called The World in 2011: ICT Facts and Figures, published by the International Telecommunication in Geneva shows that of the 35% of the world who are online, the majority of Internet users are from Developing Countries, with China and India making up 47% of the total share of those developing countries. But is this really that shocking? Thinking about it - no. Because those countries are the ones which are developing the fastest, those are the countries that push technological boundaries and as a result, they use the Internet far more than expected. Furthermore, these countries that are developing understand the importance of technology and the Internet so therefore provide the necessary education to use the web efficiently and effectively. This has proven to be a key reason as to why the number of people who use the web is so high in developing countries. Recent studies show that those who understand how to use the Internet and its facilities are more likely to use it (hence why younger people generally use the Internet more than those in the elder generations) which proves that teaching the skills required is all part of providing access. The sooner those Internet-poor countries realise this, the sooner the GDD will fall to a level that is far more acceptable in today's society.


Sources;
The World in 2011: ICT Facts and Figures, International Telecommunication Union
www.digitaldivide.net

Globalisation and the expansion of global ideologies.

Globalisation has become what many believe to be a recent phenomenon of the last decade or so (although this has caused divided opinions amongst experts). It can refer to either political, social, economic, ecological or ideological globalisation, but here, I will discuss the Ideological aspects of Globalisation. Ideological Globalisation can be defined, although not limited to, 'the expansion and integration of concepts and ideologies across the globe'.

As Manfred B. Steger put it nicely in his book 'Globalization - A Very Short Introduction' (printed by the Oxford University Press), jihadist globalism has certainly been on the rise recently. And as he also detailed in his book, at the heart of it is Osama bin Laden, the man behind 9/11 and the old-leader of the al-Qaeda terrorist network.

Throughout his time as leader of arguably, the world's most prolific terrorist group, he constantly contradicted himself - claiming that the West were invading Middle-East, not physically invading with troops (although this did happen when President Bush sent troops to Iraq and Afghanistan), but in an ideological sense. He saw the US and its allies as planting ideas and innovations in the minds of those around him, in those of the Middle-East. So, as a result, he retaliated and set up al-Qaeda in 1988. But despite the retaliation, he did contradict himself.





















 Here, as he can be seen talking to the camera, making threats to the US in 2001; he is seen wearing a Casio f-91W watch, made by the Japanese computer firm Casio Computer Co., Ltd. It is also designed and manufactured in Japan, yet is sold globally, so technically, this f-91W watch is a global phenomenon, much like Globalisation and is a symbol of Globalisation, but why is he wearing that watch, if he is against the Globalisation Phenomenon?

We can also see in the background of the image AK-47, a global weapon of choice for many who would need one. The Islamic Extremist is also using a video-camera and microphone to get his message across the Globe, he wants to be seen and wants to be known around the World. But yet he is against Globalisation? Furthermore, to relay this message, it was broadcast on the Al-Jazeera network based in Qatar, yet this is a global network. There's also a high chance that his clothes have been made elsewhere, it's unlikely those clothes were made using local 'threads', so yet again without realising, he's contradicted himself and everything he is against. This is the power of the Globalisation trend, and although he represented those against the expansion and intensification of global ideologies, he constantly and repeatedly contradicted himself. The power of Globalisation is now, more evident, and more prominent than ever.

Sources;
Manfred B. Steger, 'Globalization - a very short introduction', Oxford University Press
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-13296443
AP source; AAP
www.aljazeera.com
James Ball (April 25, 2011). "Guantánamo Bay files: Casio wristwatch 'the sign of al-Qaida'".

Clouds

On a recent trip to Southern Spain, I observed some of the most wonderful and interesting cloud formations I have ever seen - this left me and my inquisitive mind to wonder, how do these fantastic silhouettes form in the skies above?

 

Defined as "a visible mass of condensed water vapour floating in the atmosphere, typically high above the ground", terrestrial clouds often form from water vapour in the air due to evaporation or transpiration of water, wind convergence over water (or moist ground) into areas of upward motion, precipitation and also when cool or dry air moves over warmer water which will become more humid. As the air rises from the surface of the earth towards space, the warm air begins to cool which reduces the capacity of the air to hold the water vapour so some of the vapour condenses onto very small particles of dust that are floating in the atmosphere and form a tiny droplet around each dust particle. When billions of these droplets come together and agglutinate, they become a visible cloud.

 

Clouds are often classified into 3 groups according to their height in the sky. Clouds above 18,000 feet are known as 'Cirrus' clouds (high clouds). Clouds that form between 6,500 feet and 18,000 feet are known as 'Alto' clouds (middle clouds). Finally, low clouds that form below 6,500 feet are known as 'Stratus' clouds. These variations can often prove helpful in predicting future weather conditions and the type of clouds that form have, for centuries, been used by farmers and agricultural workers to predict tomorrow's weather patterns.

 

Now, there is much more detail and information on clouds and their formation on the web and it is well documented in books - I have merely scratched the surface on the science and geography of clouds but I hope I have provided you with a simple insight on clouds and their formation.

Image from http://www.flightlearnings.com/2011/10/30/methods-by-which-air-reaches-the-saturation-point-part-three-clouds/

Sources;

1.      Steve Horstmeyer (2008). "Why don't clouds fall?". Graz University of Technology. Retrieved 2012-04-06. 

2.      David R. Dowling and Lawrence F. Radke (1990). "A Summary of the Physical Properties of Cirrus Clouds". Journal of Applied Meteorology 29 (9): 970–978 (977).

3.      Glossary of Meteorology (June 2000). "Adiabatic Process". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 2008-12-27.

Geomorphology

What is geomorphology? In this post I aim to explore and explain what exactly geomorphology is and the way in which it links into the discipline of geography as a whole. 

Geomorphology refers to the study of the  Earth's surface and the processes in which it is shaped, both in the present and in the past. Geomorphology has many sub-topics that refer to specific locations or areas of similar geomorphology. For instance, geomorphology in arid environments such as near the Tropics (of Capricorn and Cancer). The underlying features of all the sub-topics is that they contain similar core principles, which are most likely to be climatic or tectonic processes. 

Geomorphology is studied under a number of different titles- most notably Physical Geography, but it can also be practised under the larger topics of archaeology or geology. The wide base of interest results in varying research methods, as well as different conclusions from the results of data collection.

They often aim to predict future changes in the Earth's surface through a number of methods including field observations, physical experiments and numerical observations. The latter known as Geomorphometry. 

Such processes that may be included within the Geomorphology field include eolian processes such as wind erosion or fluvial erosion such as corrosion. 

We should end with the name of a notable geomorphologist, William Morris Davis, who has been dubbed 'the father of American Geography' and he paid important attention to geomorphology as a key aspect to his research of Physical Geography. Thus proving the importance of this sub-field to the discipline as a whole. 

References: 

'International Conference Of Geomorphology', Europa Organisation. 

Tinkler, Heith J. A short history of geomorphology. Page 4. 1985

 

Tourism

The growth of tourism in recent years has provided both many benefits and drawbacks to those countries that have experienced significant changes in the number of tourists visiting their country each year. And here, I will discuss the impact of tourism on national economies. There are many reasons for such a growth in global tourism, for example; increases in the disposable incomes of millions of people, the expansion of budget airlines, such as easyJet, the greater cultural and social awareness of foreign entities. However, how beneficial is tourism to an economy? Before we look at a case study, I should specify the difference between the tourism economy and the tourism industry. The tourism economy includes all payments and those employed indirectly from tourism. For instance, those who make the carpet for a new hotel that has been built specifically for tourism. Whereas the tourism industry includes only the payments directly attributed to tourism and those directly employed in tourism, for instance, holiday reps.

Taking Spain as an example, over the past 40 years, Spain's tourism economy has grown to be the second largest in the world worth approximately $US237,898 million which was about 15.3% of Spain’s GDP (gross domestic product) in 2010. The tourism industry employed around 1,280,000 people in 2010 compared to the nation’s whole tourism economy which employed around 3,205,000 people. Now, these figures are vast and show just how important tourism is to the Spanish economy, with 14% of the total population employed in the tourism economy. The multiplier effect of this figure should not be underestimated, the growth of tourism certainly helped Spain to develop its economy into one of Europe's biggest.

Despite this, recent trends of tourism have led to Spain to become second choice for many as they search for a greater cultural experience. The ideology of crowded Spanish beaches in Benidorm has become a horror for many, although still attracting many of those wanting a home-from-home experience in the sun, with the likes of Tesco's and McDonald's along the beach front.

So what next for Spain? As we all know, Spain's economy has been suffering recently with a 57% unemployment rate for those under 25, so in order to help kick-start the economy again, it is necessary that Spain attempts to diversify into different market segments of tourism, whilst maintaining its utilisation of the main attraction factor for many - the Sun. Perhaps more emphasis on the budding ski resort of Sierra Nevada near Granada in Southern Spain, or maybe even promoting more of its cultural festivals such as the 'Running of the bulls' in Pamplona. Whatever the Spanish government resorts to, it is important Spain maintains its tourism economy, and sustains (or preferably increases) the current levels of income it brings into the economy.

Spanish Unemployment Rate

References:
http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/83fc03d8-c919-11e2-bb56-00144feab7de.html#axzz2XX1oQnnr

Borders

Borders define the geographic boundaries of political entities or areas of different legal jurisdiction, for instance, between states in USA. These borders may be natural such as the Niagara River which separates the USA from Canada. Another example of a natural boarder is oceans as there are very few nations that span more than one continent. These borders may also be manmade, such as the border that separates India and Pakistan, which is so large that it can be seen from space.

Originally, borders served to separate nations and act as a defence from offensive threats of neighbouring regimes or to separate countries with political differences, however, more recently, as the world has developed there has been a global shift towards the relaxation of borders. This is because of the developments in technology that make invading other countries a non-existent feature of modern day world. Despite this, physical natural and manmade borders (as well as non-physical borders) still exist as to prevent the free movement of the population to avoid over-crowding in certain countries. They also serve to reduce trade between countries, most notably in illegal goods and services such as drugs and human trafficking. The best example of this is the Mexico-United States border that runs nearly 2,000 miles along the Rio Grande, It is thought that over 520,000 Mexicans try to cross the border in an attempt to lead a better lifestyle in the USA, of the 520,000, 40% will slip through US border control and gain illegal access to America. It is thought by Dr Douglas Massey of Princeton University that the efforts of the US to increase security along the border has led to migration flows in the most desolate and most desert places along the border and thus increasing the mortality rate of those who try to enter the US illegally. As a result of the danger posed by crossing the border, those who gain access to the US are highly likely to attempt to stay in the US and are increasingly likely to pay criminals in an attempt to have the criminals bring their families across the border to the better lifestyle the US offers. Such danger posed by the border has created a large informal economy for criminals in drug, weapon and human trafficking which has further required security resources to be deployed to this problem and therefore has cost the US more money. In the Europe, however, the borders are mostly more relaxed due to the formation of the EU that allows the free movement of people, goods, services and capital from one EU member country to another, in total, there are 27 EU member countries.

The India-Pakistan border. Image courtesy of BBC

References:

Kelly, Patricia, and Douglas Massey. "Borders for Whom? The Role of NAFTA in Mexico-U.S. Migration". The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political Science 610 (2007): 98–118.

Beaches

Many people don't realise it, but beaches are a in fact a landform of deposition caused by the sea and its sediment. They can form in many different types of coastline and bring immense enjoyment and satisfaction to many of those who use them.

Beach profiles generally fall into two extremes: those that are wide and flat (constructive) and those that are narrow and steep (destructive). The type of beaches depends on the wave energy and more specifically, the type of wave. The types of wave include;

 - Constructive waves. These wash sediment up the beach as the waves have high energy, they then deposit the sediment as the energy of the wave decreases and it flows back down as backwash and out to the sea. They are usually shallow and of a low frequency. It involves a strong swash and weak backwash, as well as a long fetch (the horizontal distance over which wave-generating winds blow).

 - Destructive waves. These pick up sediment as they run down the beach and carry it back out to sea, therefore 'destroying' the beach.  Often involve high waves and they are often of a high frequency. They have a strong backwash and a weak swash, as well as a short fetch.

(NOTE; swash - the rush of seawater up the beach after the breaking of a wave.

            backwash - The motion of receding waves, as water flows down the beach)



The type of beach also depends upon the particle size. There is a relationship between particle size and the beach slope profile; this is partly to do with grain size but also to do with percolation rates.

As a result, different beaches will have different features associated with them. For instance, destructive waves often produce steep beaches whereas the beaches formed by constructive waves are often much more gently sloping. Or, shingle beaches are steeper than sand beaches because shingle beaches have higher percolation rates.

Constructive waves (top) and Destructive waves (bottom. Images from BBC.





Desertification

Desertification is, according to the most commonly used definition, "the process of fertile land being transformed into desert typically as a result of deforestation, drought or improper/inappropriate agriculture". Unfortunately, desertification is an ever-increasing problem as more and more water is used up for the growing population, less and less water is available for vegetation leading to the death of many plants in already dry regions. This loss of vegetation is one of the main causes of desertification as the roots can no longer bind the soil together. An area that has undergone the loss of vegetation will see an increase in erosion of the soil, leaving behind an infertile plain of land that is unusable.

 To stop desertification, in a sustainable way that will allow the communities of the effected areas to develop as normal, is a hard challenge to many governments. One of the best solutions so far is to grow the Jatropha Cactus, this cactus has long roots that bind soils together and when grown around crops, it creates a wall-like-barrier to stop water leaking out of the agricultural areas. To further that, the cactus produces oil that can be sold to provide extra incomes for farmers and the cactus when no longer needed, or dead, can be burnt to reduce the need for deforestation and thus reducing desertification even more.

Image courtesy of Wikipedia. The band of land across Central Africa that has very high vulnerability of desertification is called The Sahel and is one of the worst affected areas across the World.

Which diseases does our aid need to be focused on?

The WHO

Which diseases does our aid need to be focused on? Many immediately say "AIDS - Kenya" or "Malaria - Africa". But is this really what we should be focusing our aid on?

The WHO (world health organisation) has three types of classification for disease;

Group 1 - Infectious/Communicable diseases grouped with maternal, perinatal and nutritional conditions

Group 2 - Non-communicable diseases (NCD's) such as cardiovascular diseases and cancers or diabetes

Group 3 - Injury related disease, which can be intentional or not intentional (note: the definition of disease is anything that harms the normal functioning of the body thus injuries are counted as a disease).

During 1990-2002 there was a great change in the types of diseases affecting most people;

 - Group 1 (before 1992) was responsible for 32% of all global deaths, with the major diseases of AIDS, TB and Malaria accounting for 10% of that. However during '92-'02, deaths from HIV/AIDS accelerated from 2% to 14% but most other infectious diseases declined (bar TB and Malaria). This left the group 1 figure unchanged at 32% for 2002.

- Group 2 saw its figure rise by 10% and therefore accounted for 59% of global deaths in 2002. Over 80% of deaths from diseases in group 2 came from low and middle income countries.

- Group 3 remained unchanged like group 1, accounting for 9 % of global deaths.

The interesting fact is that in 2005, non-communicable diseases killed more people than AIDS, TB and malaria combined, but yet we see much of our aid donated to the diseases such as AIDS, TB and malaria. But why is this?

The answer is probably because these communicable diseases are treatable and/or preventable more easily and more cheaply than the NCD's but with NCD's accounting for more and more deaths each year, the government should constantly be reviewing their recipients of the aid to ensure that it is beneficial for the development of the global community in the future.

Wilderness

Wilderness, a term that is commonly used, a term that most people feel they know and understand, but how would you define it?

You could possibly define it as 'an area of open space'? Or maybe as 'an area of woodland and forest'? Perhaps even a combination of the two, 'a mixture of open space and forestry combining to form a landscape known as wilderness'? But these are all less-correct, but not wrong, than the definition that is most frequently used by geographers and conservationists around the world which is 'a natural environment on Earth that has not been significantly modified by human activity'.

Areas of wilderness status are often areas of outstanding natural beauty, or of great interests to scientists, locals, conservationists, natural biologists etc. Such areas can often contain flora or fauna that is hard to replicate in zoos or is endemic to the area. However wilderness doesn’t mean that the area has never been discovered or disturbed by humans, which is almost impossible now. Wilderness can be said to be wilderness if natural processes occur without human interference. This is the only type of wilderness thought to be left on our planet.



Wilderness at Monument Valley, Utah, USA



Preserving wilderness has become such a problem that governments have had to start passing laws on certain areas to stop the growth of human activity, a negative effect of our currently booming world population. But should the wilderness be conserved or preserved? The difference is that conservationists would allow the land to be used but heavily regulated, whereas preservationists would insist that the land is 100% preserved with no human interference. Which is better? Many say that preserving the few natural wonders left in the world is vital, however, with the growing population the space is going to need to be conserved and a balance will need to be struck.





Wilderness at Biogradska Gora National Park, Montenegro



Volcanoes

A volcano can be described as an opening, or break, in a planet's surface or crust, which allows hot magma, volcanic ash and gases to escape from the magma chamber below the surface.

In general, volcanoes are found at converging tectonic plates (two tectonic plates moving towards each other causing one of them to break). One example of this is the Pacific Ring of Fire which has examples of volcanoes caused by convergent tectonic plates coming together. They are also found at diverging tectonic plates (two tectonic plates move away from each other leaving a break in the layer of tectonic plates). One example of this is in the mid-Atlantic ridge whereby two plates are diverging leading to the formation of volcanoes.



Image courtesy of http://mail.colonial.net/~hkaiter/platetectonics.html 



There are many effects of a volcanic eruption; firstly the ash and dust particles thrown up into the air cause significant rainfall, lightning and thunder. This is because the ash particles are good at attracting water droplets due to their dipolar positive charge, therefore attracting the waters dipolar negative charge. Secondly, lahars can form if the erupting material comes into contact with large amounts of rainfall or melting snow, lahars are mixtures of ash, mud and water which can cause fast-flowing mud slides. Thirdly, there are obviously the human effects, many lives can lost and lava flows and lahars can destroy settlements and clear areas of woodland or agriculture, the land affected is often irreversible. In some severe cases, volcanic eruptions can cause large-scale disruption, such as the case in 2010 where the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland led to flights globally being cancelled.

 However, there are also positive effects; firstly the dramatic scenery created by volcanic eruptions attracts tourists and thus increases economic opportunities in an area. Secondly, the volcanic material can often break down to provide valuable nutrients for local soils acting as a great natural fertiliser increasing crop yields. And thirdly, the heat of a volcano can provide opportunities for the exploitation of geothermal energy which is becoming increasingly important and desirable as countries and companies seek to lower global emissions.

So although the effects of volcanic eruptions are often portrayed as negative by the media, these great natural wonders can have tremendously positive effects on areas and if managed and predicted properly, can prove to be a great source of income and a great source of natural beauty for many worldwide.

Is the Burgess Model still applicable today?

The land-use model (pictured below) is known as the Burgess Model or the Concentric Zone Model and was created by the geographer Ernest Burgess in 1924. But is it still applicable to the growing international cities of today?

Image courtesy of BBC

 

The model, originally based on the city of Chicago, was the first to give the explanation of the distribution of social groups within urban areas. It was designed to show what a typical city is most likely to look like in terms of land use. This model is based on the idea that land values are highest in the centre of a city because competition is high in the central parts of the cities which leads to high-rise, high-density buildings being found near the Central Business District (CBD), with low-density, sparse developments on the edge of the town or city. It can loosely be applied to a city such as London; in general land prices are most expensive in the CBD. This is because of the vast number of passers-by and also the expansive transport network. And in general, the further out of the city you go, the cheaper the land prices, although there are of course exceptions, for example, an area such as Knightsbridge in which the average asking price for a house is £2,443,942 is further out than Holborn but house prices in Holborn are cheaper at £1,535,033.

However, there are limits to the Burgess model:

•The model is now quite old and was developed before transport networks were so prominent in the lives of many people. Car's weren't widely owned and getting around was much harder than it is today.

•The development of the internet and telephone has led to increased business being done through technology, with some companies opting to locate in a cheaper location further out. Furthermore, many people now choose to live and work outside the city on the urban fringe -  this is not reflected in the Burgess model.

•Every city is different. There is no such thing as a typical city. Burgess based this model upon, one city, Chicago and it therefore cannot be applied globally.

So in conclusion, although the model can loosely be applied to most modern day cities, it is very hard to consider this as a precise model of the modern day city and there are now too many factors, independent to each city, that mean it is unlikely another model, of suitable precision, could be created.

The link between deforestation and soil erosion

With an area the size of Costa Rica being destroyed each year, deforestation to create land which can be used for agriculture is a growing problem, it needs to be addressed soon before it’s too late. Here, I will be looking at the effects of deforestation on soil erosion.

A forest will protect the soil lying beneath it from the immediate effects of rainfall as the canopy and other factors help to lower the rate of erosion in this type of environment. This is because the canopy reduces the fall of raindrops, reducing their velocity and therefore kinetic energy.

The forest is also helped by the presence of humus in its soils (see image). Humus is the term used to describe any organic matter that has reached a point of stability, where it will break down no further and might, if conditions do not change, remain as it is for centuries. Humus helps to absorb the impact of the raindrop and is very permeable therefore allowing the rain to infiltrate its soils and be absorbed by the roots which can then help the plants grow. This humus also helps to bind these soils together, reducing the impacts of wetting and water-drop impact

Another factor that increases the stability of forest soils is the large, deep, tree roots that tend to bind soils together, compacting them and increasing the total strength of the soils.

Therefore, we can expect that with an increase in deforestation; there will be an increase in soil loss and erosion. If the land is left bare, then the effects will be more dramatic than if the land were to be covered with crops, which would have similar (but to a lesser extent) effects as forests. Furthermore, the type of ploughing, time of sewing and type of crop will influence soil erosion rates.

It is evident that the effect of humans upon the soils of the earth has dramatically increased the rate at which soil is eroded and lost. In Colorado, USA, rates of erosion over the past 100 years have been at circa 1.8mm per year, whereas in the 200 years before that, rates were between 0.2 and 0.5mm per year, showing erosion rates have increased at a rate of 5x since 300 years ago. In this specific area, it is because of the number of cattle that now use the fields.

This situation is something that cannot be ignored and has to be dealt with soon before the damage to our environment is irreparable.

Humus in soil. Image courtesy of http://cookingrut.blogspot.co.uk/2011/05/gardening-tips.html#!/2011/05/gardening-tips.html

What's caused the UK's recent cold chill?

The rarity of snow in many areas of the UK has caused excitement and chaos amongst all. But what caused the UK's cold chill in January 2013?

It appears that there is a link between the UK's cold chills and the stratosphere. The stratosphere is the second major layer of the Earth's atmosphere, just above the troposphere. The stratosphere has a temperature gradient, so as altitude increases so does temperature.


Image courtesy of http://www.nc-climate.ncsu.edu/edu/k12/.ozonelayer 

 

But how does this affect the cold chills of the UK?

Well, it appears that stratospheric temperatures can have a dramatic effect on temperatures here in the UK. For weeks now, forecasters have noticed that the stratosphere has warmed considerably, and in recent times this has indicated cool temperatures are on the way. Such as in 2009 when a jump in the stratospheric temperature in January led to the UK being covered in snow by February.



However the two are not directly related, every fluctuation in stratospheric temperature does not result in the UK being frozen over and every time the UK is frozen over it is not always due to the stratospheric temperature but there is a link.

The stratospheric temperature is providing forecasters with a powerful tool of which to use when predicting weather conditions, however it can also throw the atmosphere into chaos and lead to very unpredictable weather, making it hard for forecasters to predict the outlook for the next 7 days. So, forecasters are facing a huge challenge. It is not until the effects of sudden stratospheric warming's wear off, that predictions can be accurate again.



Image courtesy of http://www.strudel.org.uk/blog/astro/000927.shtml

 

International Aid

Aid is a form of help which can be in the form of money, machinery, food or people. It is usually heard about after a natural; disaster or war however it also happens on a regular basis as the MEDCs try to boost the economies and reduce poverty and starvation of the LEDCs. Due to the demographics of the world and the uneven distributions of income due to the level of development in certain areas, it is usually the countries of the North such as the UK donating/giving aid to countries of the South such as Chile.

There are a few different forms of aid. They can usually be grouped into around 5 categories.

1. Food aid, for example, cereal, which is usually sent when the more developed countries, HICs (high income countries) or MEDCs (more economically developed countries), have food surpluses so therefore can afford to donate their surplus to the LICs or LEDCs (low income countries or less economically developed countries). It is also due to the fact that some LEDCs cannot produce all the food they need because of the lack of fertilised land to grow crops. So with this form of aid the LEDCs benefit directly from the inefficiency and wastage of the MEDCs.

2. Financial aid, which could be a loan or a grant to help the LEDCs kick-start their economies and help the country to develop and reach its objectives which could be to reduce poverty, or maybe to increase technological development so that they can keep up with the advances in the MEDCs.

3. Volunteers and/or experts, people such as teachers or military personnel. These people will travel to the area in need of aid and help by teaching to raise the educational standards of these areas. This is with the hope that it will increase the employability of future generations and give them the basic skill set of reading and writing.

4. Technical Equipment, such as tractors or medical apparatus, can help the locals of the LEDCs grow crops in the correct conditions or help with possible illnesses that may arise due to the lack of clean sanitation and drinking water in some of the areas requiring aid. 

5. Emergency aid, the type we usually hear about, when food and clothing are sent to countries in response to a war, or an earthquake, or other natural disasters. This type of aid is most vital in helping to save the lives of the people in these areas, without this aid, LEDCs would find it near impossible to recover from natural disasters, such as we saw recently in Haiti, in 2010, when over £1,526,956,768 or $ 2,422,202,996 worth of aid was sent. Be it in any of the above 5 forms.

However, it is not just the government of these countries that send aid. Aid can be sent in 4 ways, and from different places/people. It can be multilateral aid which is where countries send their aid via an international agency such as the World Bank. Or it could be bilateral aid which is where the aid is sent directly from one country to another, for example the UK to Chile. Banks can also give aid as loans however these have to be repaid. One more type of aid is from Voluntary Organisations such as Oxfam - who do not belong to a government, but are instead self-funded and these organisations often give their aid to the areas the official governments don't help.

But, why is it that MEDCs are so keen to give aid? Is it just to help out those worse off than that of MEDCs? Or is it to benefit themselves? Conditional aid is aid that is not free, and has 'strings' attached. For example, the money donated may be 'tied' which is where the money received, has to be spent on goods from the lender. 90% of US aid is tied to buying US goods and services, thus increasing the country’s exports and giving the country a better Balance of Payments figure. It is also that loans given have to be repaid, with interest thereby costing the beneficiary money rather than saving it money.  Aid can often have political strings attached to it as well, with some countries asking to build military bases within some countries receiving aid or maybe asking for political support in the UN.

A good example of conditional aid is when Britain gave over £70million to help repair Sudan's main power station, in Khartoum, that kept braking down. However, many of the parts need to help repair the power station had to be purchased from Britain, even if there were cheaper alternatives available, this is because the aid had 'ties' to British goods. The aid did result in the repairing of the power station and has benefitted Sudan's industrialists and those living in cities and urban areas.

 

Avalanches

With the Ski season around the corner, I thought it'd be good to have a look at avalanches and what causes them.

An avalanche is a rapid flow of snow/ice down a slope. Now this can vary from just a small ripple of snow on a ski slope, to vast volumes of snow and ice rushing down the side of a mountain, with varying consequences. Avalanches are caused by a number of factors:

 1. The recent weather. If a snowstorm has been occurring recently then an avalanche is more probable considering recent snowfall puts extra stress on the already existing snow pack, this is especially dangerous if the snow does not bond with the layers of snow already there. The 24 hours after a major snowstorm is the most critical time as this is when the crust is most likely to give way to the pressure.

2. Temperature change. Small changes in temperature for short periods of time usually do not have an effect on whether an avalanche will occur or not, however, if the change in temperature is substantial or sustained then this can seriously weaken the upper layers of snow, causing an avalanche.  

3. Wind direction. Wind on a mountain usually blows up the windward side and down the leeward side, however, as the wind blows, it picks up snow (on the windward side by scouring the snow off the mountain side) and deposits it on the other side of the mountain (leeward side), this increases the volume and weight of the snow pack on the leeward side which can often trigger an avalanche.  

4. Snow pack conditions. This is perhaps the most important factor when looking at avalanche probability ad slope stability as determining whether the snow pack is bound well or loosely will give an idea of how probable an avalanche is.

5. Vegetation. Lone trees and rocks can often weaken the snow pack significantly triggering avalanches. However, not all vegetation is bad; having lots of trees and rocks can break up the snow pack and also help to stop the avalanche if it begins.



Here is an example of the layers in snow pack. Courtesy of http://www.fsavalanche.org/encyclopedia/layer_snow.htm